In this episode, we broadly examine the different Scythian groups from the grasses of Ukraine to the highlands of the Sayan-Altai. We meet peoples like the Pazyryk, the Massagetae, and the Saka.
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In this episode, we broadly examine the different Scythian groups from the grasses of Ukraine to the highlands of the Sayan-Altai. We meet peoples like the Pazyryk, the Massagetae, and the Saka.
Twitter: https://twitter.com/NomadEmpiresPod
Substack: https://nomadsandempirespodcast.substack.com/
Welcome back to the Nomads and Empires podcast, episode 14. Last time, we took a brief overview on the Scythians and their historiography. We raised several open questions and in the next few episodes, I intend to provide some answers. As I said previously, before jumping into a narrative based on years and dates, we’ll start by analyzing broader topics related to the Scythians. This includes a discussion on their religious beliefs and their culture. Today’s episode kicks off this overarching discussion, and indeed, we’re going to start by asking the broadest of all questions. Who really were the Scythians?
Well, to really get a sense of the Scythians, we should first start by placing them in some sort of geography. The customs, beliefs, and history of all peoples is, after all, defined by their geographic context, and this is especially true for the peoples of the Eurasian steppe.
When looking at the Scythians broadly, we find a continuum of similar cultures that stretch from the fringes of Hungary to the edges of the Sayan-Altai region. Scythian groups could be found across the grasslands here, whether that be in the Kazakh or Pontic steppes, or even in the Great Hungarian Plain. The territory they resided in was diverse and included true steppelands, forest steppes, and semi-desert. Great rivers flowed throughout, such as the Don and the Syr Darya; great bodies of water like the Caspian and the Black Sea graced the edges of Scythia. Mountains such as the Tian Shan and the Ural soared in the horizon.
In this area that encompasses the Western and Central steppes, the climate was conducive for nomadic lifestyles. Unlike the steppes of Mongolia, the steppes past the Tian Shan and Altai mountains were wetter and more mild. Although freezing temperatures could still be deadly, the grasses here were fed by ample rainfall and great river systems. Feathergrasses, such as the stipa capillata, thrived in such an environment.
At the same time, the diversity of ecosystems meant that the Scythians could have a number of regional differences. We’re going to dive into the specifics in a bit, but first let’s broadly consider the diversity here. In fact, we’ll start with Herodotus, as he provides us with an amazing discourse on the sheer variety of Scythian groups. Now, as Herodotus was writing from the Greek perspective, we should note that he focuses mainly on the Pontic region; he had little idea as to who or what resided past the Ural Mountains.
Several groups are described to be agriculturalists. The Borysthenites were Scythian farmers who resided along a river named Paniticapes. An unnamed group of Scythians are described to be “tillers of the ground but who sow corn for sale and not for their personal food.” Others appear to be of mixed heritages or were Scythian-influenced; Herodotus notes the Callippidae as “Greek Scythians,” implying a Greek orientation within this particular group. Several groups demonstrate Scythian beliefs and culture, but are not Scythians themselves, at least according to Herodotus. The Alazones are a great example of this; they are a people who “have much the same practices as the Scythians,” but Herodotus is clear in not connecting them with the Scythians. The names are practically endless; we have the Tauri, the Neuri, the Agathyrsi, and so forth. We can imagine that these particular peoples were of various backgrounds. They could have been Thracian, Kimmerian, and so forth. Beyond these names, Herodotus is clear in distinguishing between different lifestyles. We have non-Scythians, sedentary Scythians, and what he calls the nomad Scythians. These nomad Scythians were defined by their consumption of dairy products, their usage of wagons, and their lack of agriculture.
What becomes clear to us is that the lands of Pontic Steppe were inhabited by a diverse array of peoples. The Scythians were not a unified people, and regional differences could be very pronounced. We have groups that practiced agriculture and those that followed nomadism. Some groups were influenced by outside forces like the Greeks, while others appeared to be indigenous groups influenced by the Scythians. The picture is hazy and unclear, but it also acts as a microcosm for all lands inhabited by Scythian groups, including in the Central steppes and the Sayan-Altai. We should also note that differences would continue with the passage of time, as new Scythian groups emerged throughout the centuries. Herodotus himself hints at the dynamic fluidity expressed among the Scythians: “The numbers of the Scythians I was not able to learn with accuracy. I heard, indeed, different accounts of how many they are, some saying they are very many and some few.”
This quote by the Roman historian Strabo is perhaps even more striking, as it perfectly encapsulates both the diversity and shared heritage of the Scythians, even if it is a bit barbed in its language: “Indeed, there not only is a certain mode of life common to all such [Scythian] peoples, of which I often speak, but their burials, customs, and their way of living as a whole, are alike, that is, they are self-assertive, uncouth, wild, and warlike, but, in their business dealings, straightforward and not given to deceit.”
Put by Professor Barry Cunliffe: “the social and economic diversity which Herodotus describes across Scythia was probably the result of the fusion of incoming nomadic Scythians and the indigenous population. The direct descendants of the invading elite-the Royal Scythians-by extending their authority over the local people embraced them within a single ethnicity while allowing their diverse economies to continue.”
Although it is true that there is some form of a broad Scythian cultural identity, the many regional differences will impact the history of the Scythians moving forward. And so to address these regional differences, what better way than to dive into the areas themselves? We received some names by Herodotus, but now I want to talk about the various regions inhabited by Scythians and identify what we know about who lived there.
The first area may be a bit of a shocker at first glance: Hungary. This area is considered the farthest extent of a Scythian presence and is likely their last expansionary move. Indeed, we need to remember what we talked about in episode 2 of this show. Hungary can often be considered an extension of the wider steppe belt. Although the Carpathian Mountains do act as a shield, steppe nomads have historically made great use of Hungarian Plain. The steppe presence in Hungary can trace all the way to 2800 BCE, when Yamnayan nomads moved from the Danube into the plain. From that point on, pastoralists have moved into the region periodically.
The emergence of a Scythian presence could date to the 9th or 8th centuries BCE, though this may involve small groups that entered the region. A definitive Scythian position in the region is more likely to date around the 6th or 5th centuries BCE, with Professor Cunliffe speculating that Scythian bands were forced to push westward rather than south into Greece because of the rising strength of Macedonia under Philip II. Before that, you had several indigenous cultures that resided on the Hungarian Plain, such as the Mezocsat. The Scythians were mostly concentrated in two areas: a “Trasylvanian” population that resided along the Muresh River, and a group on the Hungarian Plain itself who scholars have dubbed the Vekerzug Group. The Transylvanian group has been identified by their burials and by artifacts recovered in said burials, such as weapons and jewelry depicting Scythian motifs. Similar burials and artifacts can characterize the Vekerzug Group, though the group also presents us with evidence of horse sacrifices. Scholars have attempted to identify these archaeological cultures with those named by Herodotus; as a result, the Transylvanian Groups is generally connected with the Agathyrsae, while the Vekerzug Group is tied to the Sigynnae. In any case, the Scythian populations here were likely small in number, probably intermarried with local groups, and were known to trade with other cultures in Europe, such as the Hallstatt.
As we move eastward and cross the Carpathians, we enter into the realm of the Classical Scythians, the land that Herodotus is mostly referring to in his list of Scythian tribes. Here, on the Pontic Steppe, the grass and climate were perfect for a nomadic presence. Furthermore, the Scythians here would come into contact with Greek colonies that dotted along the Black Sea coast and the Crimean Peninsula, and thus, these Scythians would have regular contact with the Hellenistic world. In this region, it appears that the Scythians first entered the scene sometime in the late eighth or early seventh centuries.
While the Greeks dominated the coasts, the Scythians themselves flourished on the grasslands, while sedentary populations likely lived along rivers like the Dnieper and Bug. Although there were many tribes, some Scythian and some not, a strict hierarchy appears to have been maintained. Agricultural groups were of a lower status and likely contributed to the economic well being of their nomadic lieges. Herodotus offers one other tantalizing detail. The Scythians here have a hierarchy. Within the ranks of the nomad Scythians are another group known as the Royal Scythians. These Royal Scythians were likely the leaders of the Pontic steppe, and many of the kurgans in modern Ukraine probably herald from this particular group. According to Professor Renate Rolle, the Scythians actually followed three hereditary kings, though there was always a high-king among them.
As we move further east, we pass the Volga River and enter the grasslands north of the Caspian Sea that lead into the Central Asian steppes. Herodotus mentions that the people residing here were the Sauromatians, a group that scholars connect with the Scythians, though we must be clear that the Sauromatians were not grouped with the Pontic Scythians. Instead, the Sauromatians are distinct and connected with the Amazonians, hinting, perhaps, of different gender norms between the Pontic Scythians and their Sauromatian cousins. Indeed, the Sauromatians maintained quite similar customs. Horses played a prominent role in the Sauromatian socioeconomic structure, and the Sauromatians likely spoke a dialect of the Iranic-Scythian language. The Sauromatians will play an important role in our story, though not for a while, but we should definitely keep them in mind.
Continuing past the Caspian Sea, we enter the steppes of Central Asia, and here we are confronted by the Saka, a people that are generally connected with the Scythians. The Saka resided along a diverse geographic position, one that included the grasslands of the Caspian and Kazakh steppe, as well as the deserts of the Kyzyl-Kum and Karakum. Great mountains bordered the eastern edges of the Saka, while bountiful rivers flowed through.
The Saka were split into a number of different groups. Populations across the region could have diverse lifestyles. Those that lived in the desert steppes practiced a semi-sedentary lifestyle, and some Saka populations living along rivers like the Ili River likely conducted settled agriculture. Many scholars recognize two distinct cultural groups within the Saka: the Saka Tigrakhauda and the Saka Haumawarga. The Tigrakhauda were known for their coned hats, and we have a number of artistic depictions of these individuals from Persian sites. Indeed, UNESCO’s History of Civilizations of Central Asia connects these Saka with the Massagetae mentioned by Herodotus. Should this connection be true, then the Saka Tigrakhauda are also known for fishing and dairy products. They would also be known for sun worship. The Haumawarga meanwhile were known for their consumption of a plant called haoma. Both groups likely utilized iron weapons and armor, and we have some accounts of breastplates for their horses.
In fact, their renown as warriors would make the Saka a feared people. Due to their geographic circumstances, both the Saka Tigrakhauda and Saka Haumawarga would have regular connections with the Iranian peoples to their south, mainly the Persian Empire. The lands of Sogdiana acted as a sort of frontier between the Saka and the Persians; garrison towns like Cyropolis provided the Saka with access to key resources and markets. Saka merchants provided horses and riding gear, while Persians provided the Saka with luxury goods, jewelry, and textiles. Several Saka kurgans contained carpets and cloth that clearly displayed Persian artistic motifs. This relationship between the Saka and the Persians has been described by authors such as Barry Cunliffe as a symbiotic one.
One key element of this relationship would be the usage of Saka mercenaries within Persian armies. The Achaemenid Persians were well known to use their frontier towns as places of recruitment for nomadic warriors. The usage of the Saka as mounted warriors would be evident throughout the Classical era, and the Saka would fight in a number of battles like Marathon in 460 BCE. And so, the Saka would represent one of the first relationships between Persia and the steppe, and it will be a story we’ll see over the many episodes to come.
Now, moving further east, we head to the fringes of Scythian territory. In the Sayan-Altai mountains, we are met with an area of diverse ecosystems. Some parts connect to the wider Eurasian steppe, other areas are filled with forests and meadows. For the most part, the Sayan-Altai are incredibly suitable for nomadic pastoralism, and as we discussed in episode 7, this region may represent one of the earliest areas for such a societal structure.
At the very least, the Sayan-Altai appears to be the start of a Scythian culture. Again, as we’ve demonstrated throughout this episode, Scythian cultures interacted and melded with many indigenous ones in Central Asia and the Pontic steppe. But, it is here in the Altai-Sayan where we find the earliest examples of the main characteristics that unite the Scythian peoples. Dating to around the late 9th century, the Arzhan 1 kurgan contained artifacts that exhibited the typical Scytho-Siberian artstyle. Even the structure and design of Arzhan 1 is reminiscent of Scythian kurgans throughout Central Asia and the Pontic region. All of this evidence suggests that a key cultural component of the Scythians derived from the Sayan-Altai. For a multitude of unknown reasons, Scythian progenitor groups would move westward, intermarrying and influencing the peoples of Central Asia, the Pontic Steppe, and the Hungarian Plain. They would bring along their economic model of nomadic pastoralism, their Scytho-Siberian artstyle, and many other elements.
While some Scythian groups left the Sayan-Altai, some remained behind and would continue to reside in the area for some time. One particular group that should be mentioned is the Pazyryk culture. The Pazyryk culture appears to be a continuation of the Arzhan one, and is dated to between the 6th and 3rd centuries BCE. You’ve probably heard of the Pazyryk because of a carpet that has often been dubbed “the oldest carpet” in the world, and yes, the Pazyryk are known for carpet weaving because of the many artifacts we’ve found.
Due to the cold and arid conditions of the Sayan-Altai, many burials of the Pazyryk culture have been amazingly preserved, and so we actually have a lot of material information. In this area alone, we have over six hundred kurgans, and these kurgans were all constructed in similar fashions. These kurgans contained everything from horse gear, carpets, and jewelry, and these artifacts shine a direct light into Pazyryk life. There is a relative lack of agricultural products, indicating that the Pazyryk peoples predominantly relied on domesticated animals.
At the same time, archaeological evidence reveals to us that the various peoples of the Pazyryk culture were trading with groups across the Sayan-Altai and even beyond. The Pazyryk culture was spread throughout these mountain ranges, and artifacts in one kurgan resembled those hundreds of kilometers away. Several burials contained luxury goods made in Persia, India, and China. One particular example is that of a wagon found in kurgan 5 at the Pazyryk burial site; Professor Barry Cunliffe speculates that the wagon may have been produced in the Chinese city of Xi’an due to physical similarities.
Incredibly, the Pazyryk culture has also left us with preserved mummies, giving us unparalleled insight into who these Scythians really were. In the Ukok plateau of the Altai Mountains, archaeologists discovered the kurgan of Ak-Alakha. Here, they uncovered a number of bodies, and anatomical research revealed that these individuals were a mixture of both Asian and Caucasian features. In the words of the researchers themselves, the study found “a mosaic of Paleo-Siberian and Southern Caucasoid traits.”
The most interesting individual recovered was that of the Ak-Alakha woman, or more colloquially known as the Siberian Ice Princess. The woman is described to being around 20 or 30 years of age and was a person of high status, whether a female of nobility or that of a religious priestess. What’s really interesting is her physical appearance, and here I’ll directly quote Cunliffe:
“She had been tattooed on one arm with a deer motif and wore a yellow silk blouse, a red-and-white striped woolen skirt, white felt leggings, and a tall headdress made of wood covered with felt to which were attached wooden carvings of felines covered with gold foil. The grave goods buried with her included two small wooden tables with offerings of horse meat and mutton, a wooden vessel containing a milk-based substance, and a horn cup holding a drink of another kind. Coriander seeds were found in a stone dish and cannabis had been placed in a container close to her body. She was also provided with a mirror. Her six horses, saddled and bridled, were buried within the grave pit outside the timber burial chamber.”
There’s clearly a lot of potential religious and cultural significance to these items, tattoos, and so forth, but we’ll dive a little deeper into these potential meanings in a later episode. Instead, I want us to take a second and consider the sophisticated material culture that we’re presented with, and just how striking it is that we have such preserved finds in an area that is often perceived to be a remote wilderness. Even in the Sayan-Altai, the Scythian peoples were connected to the broader world.
And with this, we’ve completed our round trip of the Scythians. In this episode, we looked at the Scythians overall and then assessed their areas of habitation. We traveled from the plains of Hungary to the grasslands of the Pontic Steppe. We were met by a number of groups, including the Sigynnae, the Alazones, and the Royal Scythians. Then, we moved under the Ural Mountains and entered the lands of Central Asia. Here, we were greeted by the Sauromatians and the many Saka groups. Finally, we entered the high plateaus of the Sayan-Altai region, where we discovered the origins of the Scythians and the Pazyryk culture.
And so, this represents the broad sweep of territory occupied by Scythian peoples. Again, there is a plethora of diversity here, and it would be incredibly misleading to consider them all as a singular identity. There were commonalities. All Scythian groups were Iranian in their language. They all generally shared the practice of kurgan burials, of a Scytho-Siberian artstyle, and an emphasis on animal herding. From the Sayan-Altai to the Hungarian Plains, these were the lands of the Scythians.
Next time, we’re going to dive deeper into the Scythians by talking about an important topic: warfare. We’ll assess their tools, their weapons, and strategies, and through it all, identify why the Scythians were a deadly force to reckon with in the Classical world. Thanks again for listening, and I hope you all are doing well. See you next time on the windy plains of the Eurasian steppe.