Episode 13: Scythians: An Introduction

Today, we introduce the Scythians. This episode provides a brief overview and dives a little into the historiographical development of Scythian studies.

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Transcript

There were always rumors about gold in the hills beyond the village. Hushed whispers and silent rumors were common affairs; children ran around screaming about the ghost of some ancient warrior they had witnessed. Such rumors seemed, if nothing else, unsubstantiated, folklore designed to stop individuals from doing stupid things at night. 

And yet, somehow these rumors would make their way westward. Travelers passing through Tomsk or Tobolsk would bring such ideas all the way to Kyiv and Moscow. Suddenly, even the great Tsars of the Russian Empire began to take notice. And so, one day, the fledgling colonies that rested in lands once held by the Khanate of Astrakhan, the Khanate of Kazan, and the Nogai Horde began to see a number of adventurers making their way east. These individuals they called bugrovshchiki, the mound diggers.

Soon, a number of great kurgans were excavated. Great hordes of gold and treasure were discovered. They found majestic artwork that depicted horses, riders, and the wide berth of natural motifs. But, that wasn’t all. They also discovered swords and bows, great weapons from the ancient past. They found objects that contained a Hellenstic element to them, signifying some deeper connection to both the Classical world and this land of the steppe. These artifacts would become a sensation in the empire. In the decades that followed, Tsar Peter the Great would personally seek out these golden objects, amassing one of the largest collections ever seen.

It was here in these lands to Russia’s newly conquered east where the remains of an ancient steppe power would be rediscovered. Many Slavs still remembered their histories under the Mongols, the Tatar Yoke, but now a new identity would become entangled into that of the Russian Empire. Here, in such lands, they would find traces of the mighty Scythians, the nomadic horse lords that were renowned in the world of Antiquity. 

And welcome back to the Nomads and Empires podcast, and welcome to the new year! I hope everyone is doing well, and I for one am looking forward to continuing this narrative with all of you, and my aim is to be a bit more consistent with my uploads! So, let’s not waste time and start our journey onward.

So in the last few episodes, we talked about a group known as the Kimmerians. The Kimmerians were the first named historical group to reside on the Pontic steppe. We discussed at length their developments, how they were pushed out of the steppe, how they ended up in the ancient Near East, and their trajectory afterwards. We didn’t really mention the Scythians in those episodes; I offered a few snippets here and there, but the Scythians remained on the outer orbit. Well now, we shift our attention to them.

The first question we should pose is who exactly are the Scythians? This is a question that I want to take several episodes to explore, so over the course of the next few episodes, we will examine Scythian identity broadly. This means an episode on Scythian religion, an episode on Scythian warfare, an episode on Scythian arts and culture, and so forth. After exploring each of those motifs, we’ll then return to the narrative and push onward. 

But for today’s episode, we can consider this question a bit more generally. When defining the Scythians, there are a few key ideas to keep in mind. The Scythians were a nomadic peoples who lived on the western steppe, likely the descendants of the Srubnayan culture and various mixtures from the Sayan-Altai. They inhabited the lands of modern day Ukraine and southern Russia, and were terrorizers of the ancient world. They lasted from the 800s BCE to around the 100s BCE. They would wage war against the Ancient Greek Black Sea colonies, fought against the Persians, and then were subjugated by another nomadic group known as the Sarmatians.

And of course, this is an oversimplification by many magnitudes. However, it is a common trope that I have heard consistently. The Scythians are often faced with negative connotations and their history continues to be marred by common associations we have for many nomadic steppe groups.

So let’s take a more nuanced dive into this question of who are the Scythians. First, let’s consider the very essence of that question. The term “Scythian” has long faced debates in academic circles. Does it refer to a single group? Does it identify a particular clan or tribal unit? Or, does the term encompass something broader? As far as I understand it, it is the latter understanding that most scholars hold today. The term “Scythian” now represents a broad spectrum of nomadic and semi-nomadic groups that stretches from the outer reaches of Hungary to Central Asia. Other names such as the Saka, a nomadic group based in northern Iran, are a part of this wide Scythian grouping. In fact, the Greek historian Herodotus identifies a number of different peoples who share this common Scythian identity.

And yet, what becomes clear to us then is that there are many differences across the various Scythian groups. Bringing attention back to Herodotus, we are given many examples of quite stark variations in culture and lifestyle. He mentions the Callippidae, a people known as the “Greek Scythians,” hinting at some sort of Hellenistic influence on them. Another tribe he identifies are the Alazones, a people who aren’t even nomadic but instead are described to be “tillers of the ground.” These Scythian agriculturalists would produce “grain, onions, garlic, lentils, and millet.” Across the Ural Mountains were the aforementioned Saka, a group defined by their conical helmets and a closer influence by the Persians. And yet, for all of these substantial differences, scholars do identify these disparate groups into the singular continuum known as the “Scythians.”

As Professor Barry Cunliffe explains: 

“Herodotus regarded the Saka as Scythian and the Persian sources used the two names interchangeably. There is, then, no small degree of uncertainty over nomenclature. The simplest solution would be to regard all the nomads of Central Asia as belonging to a Scythian continuum.”

Amidst the sea of differences, these Scythian groups still maintained some common factors uniting them together. Linguistically, all Scythians spoke an Iranic language. Save for some exceptions, many Scythian groups were nomadic or semi-nomadic, characterized by horseback riding and carts. Animals like cattle and sheep played prominent roles in the Scythian economy. Social developments were also broadly similar. Scythian groups likely organized themselves among tribal and clan structures, representing an evolution of what we saw during the proto-Indo-European era. Kurgan mounds could be found across the steppe from Ukraine to Central Asia.

Indeed, it is these kurgan mounds that provide the most striking example of a broad Scythian identity. Many of these kurgans contained golden artifacts. Such objects included animalistic motifs, stylized depictions of warriors, and an amazing sense of metallurgy. What is striking about these items lies in their similarity to one another. These elements are so common across the steppe that scholars such as Rene Grousset identified them as part of a “Scytho-Siberian” artstyle. Taken a step further, it indicates a common artistic culture that existed between the Pontic steppe and the Sayan-Altai. 

One Scythian object, a comb dated to the 5th century BCE and found in the steppes of Ukraine, depicts a horseback warrior readying a lance as another warrior moves towards him. The object is golden and reminiscent of the Scytho-Siberian artstyle mentioned earlier. Another artifact, this one located in Kazakhstan, is a golden plaque shaped into a deer. Again, the Scytho-Siberian artstyle is evident here. Finally, we turn back to an example we’ve seen before, that of the Arzhan kurgans. Arzhan II, dated to around the 7th-6th centuries BCE, contains a vast number of artifacts that depict animalistic elements. One particular golden head ornament showcases a horse in motion. Across these regions, similar metalworking techniques could be seen. Goldsmiths created casts, practiced engraving, and refined objects via polishing. These techniques were sophisticated and likely widespread across the steppe. 

Of course, it is important to remember that even in this realm, the cultural differences of these various Scythian groups can be seen. Once more, we cannot think of the Scythians as a single identity, but rather as a collection of different cultures that held some overarching common features. We’ll examine culture and art in further detail in a later episode, but I think this is a good example to highlight both the similarities across the steppe and their differences. 

And so, this is the socio-geographical landscape we’re going to be working with. The Scythians represent a band of Iranian peoples that lived in the Pontic and Kazakh steppes. They likely emerged as a synthesis of various cultures with strong influences from the Sayan-Altai. The Scythians engaged mostly in a nomadic or semi-nomadic socioeconomic structure, though there were many variations to this. They would become integrated into a wider world that was becoming increasingly dominated by Greeks and Persians, and so the Scythians would come to play key roles in their respective stories. Finally, the Scythians would face pressures from the east by a group known as the Sarmatians. The last vestiges of a Scythian presence would be found in the Crimean Peninsula, and by the end of the 2nd century CE, the Scythians would be no more. 

This is the story that we will follow in the next chapter of the Nomads and Empires podcast. But before moving on, I want to take some time now to consider the historiographical context of what we’re dealing with. The field of Scythian studies is quite vibrant, and is certainly more developed than what we saw with the Kimmerians. However, it has undergone many changes throughout history, as evidenced by the very nuanced interpretations we have of the Scythian identity. So forgive me as we take a brief digression here. 

When considering the Scythians and their presence in history, we are first confronted by the central problem many steppe groups faced. It is a point I have belabored, and it is a point that rears its head here. The Scythians did not leave us any written materials. Our early sources, once more, come from Classical authors. Unlike the Kimmerians, our ancient authors wrote extensively about the Scythians. In some instances, it is possible that our ancient authors met the Scythians, or at least those descended from them. 

The most immediate sources for us come from the ancient Greeks. Again, Herodotus rears his head, and this is a direct consequence of his own personal history. Herodotus hailed from the city of Halicarnassus in the Anatolian Peninsula. The city was therefore very close to Greek colonies on the Black Sea, and as we’ll see later down the line, these colonies would have regular contact with the Scythians. A number of Scythian tribes resided on the Crimean Peninsula, for instance, and would interact with the Bosporan Kingdom. 

A number of classical authors would trace their lines down from Herodotus. The Roman historian Strabo describes the Scythians and their divisions in ways reminiscent of Herodotus. In due time, these classical authors would very much influence the connotations of the word “Scythian,” and later writings would often use this term to describe a whole plethora of steppe nomadic groups. The Alexiad of Anna Komnene is consistently describing the Turkic tribes as Scythians. We can once more see where some of these stereotypes come from.

Other ancient groups also mention the Scythians. Like the Kimmerians, we also have records from the ancient Near East. The Assyrians and Persians both left writings about the Scythians, and in the case of the Persians, we even have artistic representations of them. The tomb of Xerxes I is renowned for its many depictions of various groups subjugated by the Persians, including the Scythian Saka. Indeed, the Scythians have a presence in Chinese literature, and mention of them can be found in the Book of Han. Already, we are seeing the big footprint left behind by the Scythians. They were involved throughout Eurasia, and had a presence in the histories of many other polities. 

Modern scholarship on the Scythians would start to emerge as the Russian Empire gained its ascendency. In the late 16th century, the Russian Tsars such as Ivan IV began to wage war against the eastern steppe nomads. Polities like the Khanate of Astrakhan and the Khanate of Sibir would eventually fall to Russian armies, and soon Russian hegemony would push eastward into Siberia. The sudden acquisition of these eastern territories would have a number of ramifications, including a new academic interest among Russian elites. The empire would send scholars such as Gerhard Friedrich Müller to investigate the peoples and cultures that resided in Siberia.

Significant for our story is the fact that these scholars soon became aware of great treasures and legends of gold in these lands. Nestled inside these newly acquired territories were burial bounds, kurgans. These kurgans could be found all over the region, such as on the Don and Volga rivers. Once more, scholars like Müller were instrumental in identifying many of these kurgans. In 1763, the Russian general Alexei Melgunov was personally digging up these burials, finding artifacts such as a sword in a golden scabbard, decorated with the animalistic motifs of Scytho-Siberian artstyle.

Scythian kurgans continued to be excavated and studied throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. The study of the Chertomlyk kurgan in 1863 uncovered a scabbard that depicted a battle between the ancient Greeks and Persians, signifying the reach of Scythian international connections. The Blitznits kurgan, excavated between 1864-1868 revealed artifacts from Persia and ancient Egypt. And to top it off, archaeological work on the Solokha kurgan on the eve of World War I revealed a number of amazing objects, including a set of Scythian armor, a Greek helmet, and a majestic goblet that seemed to have been influenced by Assyrian artistic style.

By the 20th century, the study of the Scythians was beginning to take on a more modern appearance. In a lot of ways, the previous study of kurgans could be little better than grave robbing, and I’m sure many artifacts were disrupted or damaged. One of the most seminal early scholars included Ellis Minns. Minns had spent years in Russia studying history. His time there put him in contact with leading archaeologists and scholars, and Minns would publish the work Scythians and Greeks in 1913. According to Professor Barry Cunliffe, this single work was responsible for “introducing the Scythians to the English-speaking world.” 

When examining Minns’ own work, it becomes clear that Russian and Ukrainian scholarship on the Scythians was already quite established and influential. Academics such as Mikhail Rostovtzeff and Yevhen Chernenko would provide contributions to this field of study in the 20th century. In fact, it is the work of Mikhail Petrovitch Gryaznov, a scholar for the Soviet Union, that would lead to the excavation of the instrumental Arzhan 1 kurgan in the 1970s.

Today, scholarship on the Scythians is relatively robust. Authorities today do not solely rely on the works of Classical authors. Indeed, scholars have attempted to divine the history of the Scythians through a number of disciplines. Archaeological efforts continue to flourish. In 2001, scholars discovered the Arzhan 2 kurgan, which offered additional insights into the early days of the Scythian. In more scientific fields, research published in 2021 attempted to trace the genetic heritage of the Scythians. Other scholars have looked at environmental and ecological data to determine the motivations of Scythian migration.What becomes evident is that the field of Scythian studies is a vibrant one, and we will have a plethora of sources and research to pull from. Although the lack of primary sources from the Scythians themselves continues to hamper our understanding with them, we do have more to play with than say the Kimmerians. 

And so, with all of that said, I think we’re ready to move onwards. We aren’t going to start the chronological narrative just yet. Instead, we’re going to dive into a number of overarching subjects to clarify our understanding of the Scythians. So, let me preview how we’re going to do this.

In the next episode, we will actually answer the question of who the Scythians were. We danced around this today, but I am aware that the answer probably wasn’t the most satisfying. Next time, we’ll look at the many divisions within the Scythians; we will look at the various cultures and differences that constituted this wider branch. As such, we will become more familiar with names like the Royal Scythians, the Sarmatians, and the Saka. After that, we’ll have an episode on Scythian culture generally. Then, we will dedicate an episode to Scythian warfare and another episode contextualizing the world the Scythians resided in. And after all of that, we will start our chronological narrative. 

Thank you again for sticking with the Nomads and Empires podcast for around a year now. Your support has meant a lot, and I really appreciate it! So, join us next time on the windy plains of the Eurasian steppe.